starting point: 

How can computational methods, machine learning, and artificial intelligence be used to enhance sustainability outcomes and optimise value creation in the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) sector?

This topic may include consideration of: computational methods, machine learning, and artificial intelligence insights to help the AEC sector overcome challenges that consider key decision factors around resource use, carbon emissions, waste production, project timelines, project budgets, and project benefits; how manufacturing information databases and systems can be leveraged to inform decision-making across key aspects of sustainable built assets.

project summary: 

The building sector plays a significant role in driving global environmental issues, particularly in relation to carbon emissions, resource inefficiency, and construction waste. The built environment accounts for approximately 34% of global CO₂ emissions [1], with a significant share attributed to the production of carbon-intensive materials such as steel and concrete. Cement, a key ingredient in concrete, alone contributes around 7-8% of global carbon emissions [2]. In addition, the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) sector is one of the most resource-intensive industries, responsible for approximately 50% of raw material consumption worldwide and generating close to one-third of total waste [3, 4]. This highlights the urgent need for a fundamental shift in both material selection and construction methods, moving toward circular, low-carbon systems that prioritise sustainability and resource efficiency. 

The shift toward sustainable construction is placing increasing pressure on conventional building methods [5, 6]. In this context, 3D printing has attracted growing interest for its ability to minimise material waste, shorten construction timelines, and reduce reliance on formwork systems [7-9]. However, despite its transformative potential, most 3D printing in construction is still largely centred around concrete-based applications, which is favoured for its compatibility with additive manufacturing (AM) processes, despite its well-documented environmental drawbacks. On the other hand, the development of large-scale 3D printing using carbon-neutral materials has advanced more slowly and is still constrained [10]. Recently, however, there has been a resurgence of attention toward the integration of earthen materials in 3D printing technologies due to their low embodied carbon, local availability, recyclability, and favourable hygrothermal properties [11-13]. Despite its potential, the use of earthen materials in 3D printing remains in its early stages and continues to face a range of technical and practical challenges. 

Over the past decade, research into 3D-printed earthen materials has made notable progress, particularly in areas such as material development, processing, and mix formulation, such as those by Gomaa et al. [14], Haddad et al. [15], Carcassi et al. [16] and Yemesegen and Memari [17]. However, these studies are often limited to small-scale laboratory samples, with persistent challenges in scalability, cracking and shrinkage control, and printing. In parallel, several design-led and practice-based projects using various earthen mixtures have demonstrated formal richness and architectural potential as shown in projects by Dubor et al. [18] and Darweesh and Rael [19]. Yet, these initiatives often lack a systematic framework for structural validation or performance benchmarking, required to inform academic and technical standards. A significant gap lies in the limited integration of structural criteria and fabrication logic within the design-to-fabrication phase, which continues to hinder the development of cohesive workflows and the adoption of standardised terminology across both research and practice. This fragmentation highlights an overlapping knowledge gap, ultimately limiting progress toward a unified, scalable, and performance-driven framework for 3D-printed earthen construction. 

Accordingly, this research aims to address the identified gap by developing an integrated design-to-fabrication workflow for 3D-printed earthen wall prototypes. Leveraging computational design and additive manufacturing, the proposed framework is not tied to a specific geographic location but is particularly relevant in hot-arid regions, where earthen materials have long been utilised for their local availability, affordability, and cultural significance [20, 21]. 

Keywords 

3D printing; Additive manufacturing; Earth-based materials; Vernacular architecture; Performance-driven design 

References 

1. UNEP. Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction 2024/2025. 2024  3 July 2025]; Available from: https://www.unep.org/resources/report/global-status-report-buildings-and-construction-20242025. 

2. IEA. Technology Roadmap: Low-Carbon Transition in the Cement Industry. 2018  3 July 2025]; Available from: https://www.iea.org/reports/technology-roadmap-low-carbon-transition-in-the-cement-industry. 

3. European Commission. Buildings and Construction. 2024  3 July 2025]; Available from: https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/industry/sustainability/buildings-and-construction_en. 

4. Soto-Paz, J., et al., The circular economy in the construction and demolition waste management: A comparative analysis in emerging and developed countries. Journal of Building Engineering, 2023. 78. 

5. Skibniewski, M.J., The Present and Future of Smart Construction Technologies. Engineering, 2025. 44: p. 21-23. 

6. Bock, T., The future of construction automation: Technological disruption and the upcoming ubiquity of robotics. Automation in Construction, 2015. 59: p. 113-121. 

7. Wu, X., et al., Experimental study on buildability and mechanical properties of 3D printing cob. Construction and Building Materials, 2024. 453. 

8. García de Soto, B., et al., Productivity of digital fabrication in construction: Cost and time analysis of a robotically built wall. Automation in Construction, 2018. 92: p. 297-311. 

9. Kothman, I. and N. Faber, How 3D printing technology changes the rules of the game. Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, 2016. 27(7): p. 932-943. 

10. Assunção, J., et al., Contribution of production processes in environmental impact of low carbon materials made by additive manufacturing. Automation in Construction, 2024. 165. 

11. Curth, A., et al., 3D printing earth: Local, circular material processing, fabrication methods, and Life Cycle Assessment. Construction and Building Materials, 2024. 421. 

12. Gomaa, M., et al., Feasibility of 3DP cob walls under compression loads in low-rise construction. Construction and Building Materials, 2021. 301. 

13. Alhumayani, H., et al., Environmental assessment of large-scale 3D printing in construction: A comparative study between cob and concrete. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2020. 270. 

14. Gomaa, M., et al., 3D printing system for earth-based construction: Case study of cob. Automation in Construction, 2021. 124. 

15. Haddad, K., S. Lannon, and E. Latif, Investigation of Cob construction: Review of mix designs, structural characteristics, and hygrothermal behaviour. Journal of Building Engineering, 2024. 87. 

16. Carcassi, O.B., et al., Maximizing fiber content in 3D-printed earth materials: Printability, mechanical, thermal and environmental assessments. Construction and Building Materials, 2024. 425. 

17. Yemesegen, E. and A.M. Memari, A review of experimental studies on Cob, Hempcrete, and bamboo components and the call for transition towards sustainable home building with 3D printing. Construction and Building Materials, 2023. 399. 

18. Dubor, A., et al., 3D printed earth architecture: Design approach for a performative habitat, in Fabricate 2024: Creating Resourceful Futures, P. Ayres, et al., Editors. 2024, UCL Press. p. 180–187. 

19. Darweesh, B. and R. Rael, From Walls to Roofs: Formwork-Free Robotic Earthen Vault Construction, in Fabricate 2024: Creating Resourceful Futures, P. Ayres, et al., Editors. 2024, UCL Press: London. p. 40-47. 

20. Minke, G., Building with Earth: Design and Technology of a Sustainable Architecture. 6th ed. ed. 2009, Basel; Boston: Birkhäuser – Publishers for Architecture. 

21. Houben, H. and H. Guillaud, Earth Construction: A Comprehensive Guide. 1994, London: Intermediate Technology Publications.